Surface-water quality and flow Modeling Interest Group
U.S. Geological Survey
Fort Collins Science Center
2150 Centre Avenue, Bldg C
Fort Collins, CO 80526-8118
Internet:
john_bartholow@usgs.gov
Phone: (970) 226-9319
$nbsp; FAX: (970) 226-9230
This version of the article has all of the figures inline. A version with all of the figures converted to thumbnails, with links to the larger images, is also available; the download time for the thumbnail version will be shorter, but the thumbnail figures may be less convenient for viewing and printing.
Citation:
Bartholow, J.M., 2000, Estimating cumulative effects of clearcutting on stream
temperatures, Rivers, 7(4), 284-297.
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
The Model
Conceptual Model Relating Cumulative Clearcut
Effects To Stream Temperatures
Literature Review
Model Implementation
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
"Comprehensive" can of course mean many things. Models have been developed to accurately predict stream shading or its effect on water temperature (Quigley, 1981; Theurer et al., 1982; Knapp and Williamson, 1984; Reid and Ferguson, 1992; Rutherford et al., 1997). Yet streamside vegetation contributes to several ecosystem functions, not just stream shading. Bank stability, woody debris accumulation, seedling survival, understory desiccation rates, tree disease rates, changes in leaf morphology, snowmelt rate, summer flows, stream roughness, and fish, invertebrate, and algal biomass are all potentially influenced by the nature and extent of riparian vegetation (Tucker and Emmingham, 1977; Beschta, 1991; Schmid et al., 1991; Li et al., 1994). Physical models have been applied to predict stream temperature as a function of shading (e.g., Brown, 1970), but few prior applications have explored the cumulative effects of vegetative removal on the streamside ecosystem. "Cumulative" in this sense implies not simply direct effects, but also second-order consequences, namely meteorologic and hydrologic changes to the system in question.
The objective of this paper is to quantify the cumulative effects that large-scale clearcutting may have on stream temperatures and determine the relative contribution of various physical changes to that effect. The approach used was to
The Stream Network Temperature Model is a mechanistic, steady state one-dimensional heat transport model that predicts daily mean and maximum water temperatures. It also predicts both mean and maximum equilibrium temperatures, the theoretical values approached if all model inputs remained the same for a long time. Net heat flux is calculated as the sum of heat from long-wave atmospheric radiation, direct short-wave solar radiation, convection, conduction, evaporation, streamside shading, streambed fluid friction, and the water's back radiation. The model requires that the hydrologic network be divided into homogeneous stream segments, each described by flow, length, top width, slope, channel roughness (Manning's n) or travel time, and shading characteristics. Meteorological data used in the model are air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, percent possible sun (inverse of cloud cover), and ground-level solar radiation. The model calculates within-segment streamflow accretions by mass balance, but groundwater accretion temperatures are necessary inputs. For a complete list of data requirements, see Theurer et al. (1984) and Bartholow (1989). The model's analytic components have been validated (Theurer and Voos, 1982; Theurer, 1985; Mattax and Quigley, 1989; Bartholow, 1991), and its performance has compared favorably with other water temperature models ranging from simple to more complex (Sullivan et al., 1990; Tu, unpublished report; Tu et al., 1992).
Like any model, SNTEMP has strengths and weaknesses (Theurer et al., 1984; Bartholow, 1989). It
The Stream Network Temperature Model has been used in a variety of applications. It was verified by Theurer et al. (1982, 1985) using data from two vastly different case studies to ensure model applicability: the relatively large upper Colorado River basin and the much smaller Tucannon River in Washington State. Since initial development, the model has been used widely, especially to assess biological flow requirements in bypass reaches below hydropower facilities (Lifton et al., 1985, 1987; Voos et al., 1987). In addition, SNTEMP has been used in a broad range of climates, from the cold water of Alaska (Meyer et al., unpublished paper) to the warmer waters of Nebraska (Dinan, unpublished paper). The model has also been applied in less conventional situations, such as evaluating standards for streamside timber removal (Sullivan et al., 1990), revegetation requirements to increase shading and channel restoration (Bartholow, 1991, 1993), and channel manipulation to increase salmon rearing habitat by removing vegetated berms (Zedonis, 1994). The use of SNTEMP in conjunction with fish population models to supply temperatures for egg incubation, juvenile growth, and mortality is a recent trend (Bartholow et al., 1993).
Another model, the Stream Segment Temperature model (SSTEMP; U.S. Geological Survey, 2000) was developed as a subset of SNTEMP, applicable only for single stream reaches and single time steps. This model uses the same numerical methods as SNTEMP, but was designed for Microsoft WindowsTM and is relatively easy to use in an exploratory mode. Both models have proven popular since their release, with documentation and limited technical support currently available from the U.S. Geological Survey (2000). For modeling single segments, or very simple networks, SSTEMP is interchangeable with SNTEMP and was used for this effort.
Conceptually, there are many effects of landscape-scale vegetative removal on local meteorology and hydrology. Tree removal can be expected to have effects on local microclimates. Air temperature may be increased or decreased depending on the time of day. Wind resistance would undoubtedly decline, leading to an increase in wind speeds near the stream and increased evaporative cooling. Relative humidity likely would be reduced given a decrease in local vegetative transpiration coupled with increased airflow and surficial evaporation. Uninterrupted solar radiation might be expected to warm the ground, which in turn could warm interflow accretion temperatures to the stream. On a watershed scale, removal of vegetation might increase the surface reflectivity (i.e., how much of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere). Further, it is conceivable that there would be an increase in airborne dust since the ability of foliage to capture and filter dust would be reduced. Increased dust could affect the amount of solar radiation reaching ground level.
Changes in microclimates and vegetative transpiration may result in hydrologic alterations. Overall water yield in the form of accretions to the stream may increase. Further, the timing of stormwater runoff is likely to shift with the watershed becoming more "flashy." In addition, with few exceptions, clearcutting usually involves extensive haul road construction. Best Management Practices have significantly reduced environmental degradation due to road construction. However, some unavoidable sedimentation effects remain, potentially affecting stream width and stream roughness in addition to water quality. Channel geometry changes may affect stream depth and travel time. Aggredation may affect the stream gradient and, potentially, stream width and length. Increased sedimentation may also influence the insulation of streamflow from ground temperatures and reduce the rate of exchange between surface waters and the hyporheic zone (Ronan et al., 1998). The following section reviews the literature available for each of the above possibilities.
Table 1. Documented changes to the environment of small streams and watersheds associated with extensive forest clearing. Changes are representative of hot summer days and indicate the mean daily effect unless otherwise indicated. Estimates (E) were derived from figures provided by authors.
Air Temperature. Edgerton and McConnell (1976) showed that removing all or a portion of the tree canopy resulted in cooler terrestrial air temperatures at night and warmer temperatures during the day, enough to influence thermal cover sought by elk (Cervus canadensis) on their eastern Oregon summer range. Increases in maximum air temperature varied from 5 to 7oC for the hottest days (estimate). However, the mean daily air temperature did not appear to have changed substantially since the maximum temperatures were offset by almost equal changes to the minima. Similar temperatures have been commonly reported (Childs and Flint, 1987; Fowler et al., 1987), even with extensive clearcuts (Holtby, 1988). In an evaluation of buffer strip width, Brosofske et al. (1997) found that air temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground increased 4.5oC during the day and about 0.5oC at night (estimate). Fowler and Anderson (1987) measured a 0.9oC air temperature increase in clearcut areas, but temperatures were also 3oC higher in the adjacent forest. Chen et al. (1993) found similar (2.1oC) increases. All measurements reported here were made over land instead of water, but in aggregate support about a 2oC increase in ambient mean daily air temperature resulting from extensive clearcutting.
Relative Humidity. Brosofske et al. (1997) examined changes in relative humidity within 17 to 72 m buffer strips. The focus of their study was to document changes along the gradient from forested to clearcut areas, so they did not explicitly report pre- to post-harvest changes at the stream. However, there appeared to be a reduction in relative humidity at the stream of 7% during the day and 6% at night (estimate). Relative humidity at stream sites increased exponentially with buffer width. Similarly, a study by Chen et al. (1993) showed a decrease of about 11% in mean daily relative humidity on clear days at the edges of clearcuts.
Groundwater Inflows. Stednick (1996) comprehensively reviewed studies of timber harvest effects on water yield. Although he did not provide a summary of changes to either peak or base flows, his work suggested that changes in water yield become measurable after about 20% of the catchment area is harvested. Harr et al. (1982) found an increased water yield in two small central Oregon watersheds cut to varying degrees. Although increased yield was substantial (20-40 cm), neither the size nor timing of peak flows changed significantly. Instead, the number of low-flow days during the summer, including drought years, decreased, perhaps due to reduced evapotranspiration. Unfortunately, the authors noted that "Variation in volume of flow during low-flow periods precluded any meaningful analyses of low-flow volumes." Burton (1997) reported that the mean annual daily discharge increased by 66% on a large (2145 hectare) watershed in northern Utah due to a 25% clearcut, but the increase was in peak flows, not base flows. Jones and Grant (1996) report similar results. Fowler et al. (1987) found no significant increases in annual water yield for three small watersheds in northeastern Oregon. Although overall water yield may increase with logging, the literature reviewed does not appear to support any significant change to low summer base flows.
Ground Temperature. The SSTEMP model uses ground temperature as one element in calculating conductive heat flux. Ground temperature may also be used as a surrogate for accretion temperatures if no other source of information is available. Brosofske et al. (1997) showed substantial changes in soil temperature immediately outside 17 to 72 m wide buffer strips. Increases averaged about 4oC during the day and 3.5oC during the night (estimate). Although at-stream soil temperatures seemed unchanged, the overall effect of increased soil temperature appeared to exert a strong influence on stream temperature, more so than buffer strip width, air temperature, or wind speed. Similarly, Hewlett and Fortson (1982) suggested that elevated ground temperature might have explained a large portion of increases in stream temperature in a low gradient piedmont stream. Childs and Flint (1987) measured large differences in ground temperature between clearcut and shelterwood cut sites in southwestern Oregon. Maximum temperatures differed by as much as 17oC at 20 mm deep and by about 5oC at 320 mm (estimate from figure). Fowler and Anderson (1987) found that 250-mm ground temperatures averaged 2.4oC cooler in forested conditions, while Chen et al. (1993) found a 4.4oC increase in soil temperatures at a depth of 100 mm. On balance, it appears that one could reasonably expect a small increase in ground temperature that would influence interflow temperatures adjacent to the stream.
Wind Speed. Brosofske et al. (1997) reported almost no change in wind speed at stream locations within buffer strips adjacent to clearcuts. Speeds quickly approached upland conditions toward the edges of the buffers, with an indication that wind actually increased substantially at distances of about 15 m from the edge of the strip, and then declined farther upslope to preharvest conditions. Chen et al. (1993) documented increases in both peak and steady winds in clearcut areas; increments ranged from 0.7 to 1.2 m/s (estimated).
Solar Radiation. Estimates of ground level solar radiation may be used as a supplemental input to SSTEMP. Radiation input determines what reaches the ground in the absence of any shading from topography or vegetation. Literature values on measured solar radiation, however, can help estimate the shading effects of forest cover. Brosofske et al. (1997) examined changes in mean daily solar radiation within buffer strips. Post-harvest radiation increased approximately 200% at the stream (estimate) even with "leave" trees, increasing to full sun values beyond the edge of the strips. The total amount of radiation at the stream decreased exponentially with buffer width.
Ground Reflectivity. Theurer's (1984) temperature model uses an estimate of ground reflectivity to calculate the amount of ground-level short wave solar radiation reflected back to the atmosphere. This uncommonly measured value was estimated by Holbo and Childs (1987) in their model of net radiation balance on clearcut areas in southwestern Oregon. Although there was variability among sites, they estimated a small (6%) decrease in total reflectivity comparing shelterwood to slashburned clearcut sites. This is in contrast with generally accepted values for the albedo of surface cover that suggests about a 5% increase in reflectivity on conversion from coniferous vegetation to open meadow land (Halverson and Smith, 1979).
Stream Width. Dose and Roper (1994) found a moderate positive correlation between timber harvest activity (cut area, road density, and large woody debris) and low-flow wetted stream widths within a 1400 km2 watershed in southwestern Oregon. Although some of the streams did not appear to have changed from 30-year old historical surveys, the median increase was 145% of the prelogging width while the top 10% of sites increased by 223% or more. Much of the increase was attributed to lack of recovery from a peak flow event 20 years prior to post-harvest measurements. Heede (1991) measured changes in channel cross-sectional area for streams in the White Mountains of Arizona. He found stream width increases averaging 10% in the logged watershed compared to +2.5% in the unlogged portion. He estimated that all of the streams were in a disequilibrium condition prior to harvest.
In my review of the literature, I found no useful information on changes in airborne dust, stream slopes, or stream length due to timber harvest. Theurer et al. (1984) however reported a 3% decrease in a 100-km portion of the Tucannon River after extensive land use alterations, including "straightening" due to flooding of the degraded system. Stream slopes may respond on much longer time scales and site-specific airborne dust may be infrequently investigated.
Table 2. Mean daily input values used to simulate hypothetical forested and clearcut stream temperatures, and resulting change in maximum temperature for each attribute singly, and collectively, as predicted by SSTEMP simulations. Collective change to mean daily and maximum daily water temperature is also given. No change is indicated by "---".
Figure 1. Percent of total thermal gain attributable to single variables from basin-wide clearcutting a small, hypothetical stream. The last item, synergistic, is that additional gain resulting from all variables combined. Estimates were computed based on simulations using the SSTEMP model.
To explore the downstream consequences of upstream changes, SSTEMP was used to project outflow temperatures from the hypothetical study area another 10 km downstream through an unimpacted watershed with attributes exactly the same as for the forested condition listed in Table 2, but with mean inflow water temperatures increasing as predicted from 13.24oC to 15.66oC. As shown in Table 3, the forested-to-forested pair predicted a mean outflow temperature of 15.78oC and a maximum of 20.38oC. The clearcut-to-forested linkage predicts a mean outflow temperature of 17.18oC with a maximum of 21.52oC. As expected, equilibrium temperatures were identical in all forested simulations because the governing hydrologic, meteorologic, and stream geometry conditions were identical.
Table 3. Comparison of simulated outflow temperatures (oC) for upstream "treatment" and downstream "recovery zone" simulations based on SSTEMP projections. Outflow temperatures for the upstream segment became inflow temperatures for the downstream segment. Note that equilibrium temperatures are the same for all forested conditions.
A more thorough investigation may be warranted for two reasons. First, attributes in downstream areas would not be expected to remain the same as upstream. Air temperatures would warm with decreased elevation (Theurer et al., 1984) and exposure would increase given "natural" changes to stream width in the longitudinal direction (Leopold et al., 1964). Second, the temperature model has no memory of upstream conditions. Therefore it cannot "remember" that incoming maximum water temperatures may be elevated from their expected value. Nevertheless, the conservative assumptions used here argue both for persistence of effects and eventual convergence on "signature" temperatures for this moderately sized stream. Smaller streams, or those even more thoroughly shaded and having an equilibrium temperature cooler than inflowing waters, might be expected to recover more quickly (Zwieniecki and Newton, 1999). From a land management perspective, however, what may be most relevant is whether factors other than water temperature, most notably stream width, are impacted downstream. If the width were increased in a forested downstream setting due to upstream land use changes, cooling attributable to relative humidity and wind speed may no longer partially offset upstream temperature increases.
Few models have been used in an attempt to understand cumulative effects related to stream temperatures. Brown (1970) pioneered work in this area showing how to calculate maximum changes in stream temperature from different degrees of clearcut. However, Brown's model relied almost exclusively on estimates of changes in surface area exposed to the sun and did not address cumulative effects as examined here. To get at cumulative effects, I have fabricated a stream meant to be representative of a system in the Pacific Northwest. Obviously, the simulation results would be different if I had made different assumptions, particularly on the scale of effects, as river heat budgets are highly variable in both time and space (Webb and Zhang, 1997). But do the results compare favorably with observations made from actual cases? There are many examples in the literature that can be used to assess the realism of model predictions. Some examples, however, do not reflect recent timber harvest BMPs; therefore direct comparisons should be tempered with caution.
Beschta and Taylor (1988) documented changes in the 325-km2 Salmon Creek watershed in western Oregon that accompanied removal of forest cover over a 29-year period. They calculated that average daily maximum stream temperatures increased 6oC at the watershed's mouth for the ten warmest days of each year, even although air temperatures appeared to decline over the same period. They noted that it was difficult to draw a tight cause-and-effect chain from timber harvest to stream temperature given natural hydrologic events in combination with changes in harvest activity and management practices. Levno and Rothacher (1967) reported a 2.2oC increase in weekly maximum temperatures after 100% logging of one small 61-hectare watershed in Oregon. Another similar watershed was only 25% cut, but suffered from extensive scour in a 1964 flood. This watershed showed mean monthly water temperature increases of 3.9o to 6.7oC from April through August following the flood. Brown and Krygier (1970) reported an average monthly maximum temperature increase of about 8oC after clearcutting a small Oregon watershed. They attributed changes to increased solar radiation reaching the stream. Amaranthus et al. (1989) described maximum water temperature increases ranging from 3.3o to 19oC in adjacent southern Oregon watersheds burned to varying degrees. Increases were negatively correlated with summer streamflow and remaining streamside shading, even if shading was composed largely of dead vegetation. Kopperdahl et al. (1971) reported maximum water temperature increases of 3.3 to 9.4oC in small watersheds cut and "roaded" to varying degrees in the fog belt of northern California, an area where air temperatures and solar radiation are generally moderate. However, much of the temperature increase may have been due to bulldozers "working" the streams. The report also summarized other studies documenting temperature changes in nearby watersheds of 11oC and 13.8oC. Feller (1981) recorded maximum temperature changes of 3.6 to 5.7oC in two coastal British Columbia watersheds paired with untouched areas, with effects lasting seven years or longer depending on the treatment. Holtby (1988) examined the effects of extensive (41%) clearcuts on Carnation Creek in British Columbia. Although he found no significant logging effect on air temperatures, every month exhibited an increase in mean monthly water temperature, ranging from 0.71oC in December to 3.25oC in August.
In an extensive study, Barton et al. (1985) examined the influence of the size (width and length) of buffer strips on maximum stream temperature in southern Ontario. They found a strong positive correlation between the percent of watershed forested and maximum water temperatures. Unvegetated watersheds averaged 5oC warmer than those with 100% forest coverage. Swift and Messer (1971) related maximum water temperature to a variety of timber harvest treatments in southern Appalachians hardwood forests. Generally, maximum water temperatures increased about 4oC, but extreme clearing was accompanied by changes of up to 7oC. Hewlett and Forston (1982) documented maximum stream temperature increases of 11oC with buffers in a clearcut loblolly pine stream in the southeast United States. Rishel et al. (1982) found average monthly maximum temperature increases of 4.4oC in the northeast after extensive clearcuts followed by herbicide treatment, although some instantaneous temperature increases approached 10oC.
To summarize, the literature from a variety of geographic locations suggests that increases to mean temperatures of 3-6oC, and to maximum temperatures of 3-8oC, have been common. Therefore, the SSTEMP model predictions for this hypothetical stream are reasonable, perhaps even low. They may be low because some reports were made prior to effective riparian management. I believe the model predictions are valuable, however, not because they may approximate the cumulative effect per se, but because they illustrate the relative magnitude of change caused by the physical variables that govern water temperature. In particular, altered stream width, when it occurs, may account for a significant proportion of increases to maximum temperature. Therefore, BMPs devoted to mitigating increases in stream width could be expected to have a relatively large influence on stream temperatures.
Has the strict definition of "cumulative effects" been met by this analysis? I fear that the answer is no. Concentration on the physical dimension ignores the far more complex biological arena (Johnson and Jones, in press). Could thermal increases be a barrier to up- or downstream migration of salmonids, growth rates or stress (Lynch et al., 1984)? Would benthic food production be adversely affected in altered habitats (Duncan et al., 1989)? This analysis alone cannot answer those questions. However, first principles models like SNTEMP and SSTEMP are good integration tools that can capture many important first-order linkages between land use changes and stream temperature (e.g., shading). They can also be used hypothetically to explore second-order cumulative effects, although they can never be conclusive. In this mode, such models are useful in five broad categories of application:
It is encouraging that stringent timber management BMPs that limit the size and contiguity of clearcut parcels may be reducing the cumulative effects of harvest on stream temperatures. However, strict BMPs do not appear to be widespread (Young, 2000). Model applications such as the one presented here may be useful in continuing to address these and similar problems such as the cumulative effects of agricultural development or urbanization.
Anderson, H.W. 1973. The effects of clearcutting on stream temperature: A literature review. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Forest Land Management Center, Olympia, Washington. DNR Report No. 29., 24 pp.
Bartholow, J.M. 1989. Stream temperature investigations: field and analytic methods. Instream Flow Information Paper No. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Biological Report 89(17). 139 pp.
Bartholow, J.M. 1991. A modeling assessment of the thermal regime for an urban sport fishery. Environmental Management, 15(6), 833-845.
Bartholow, J.M. 1993. Sensitivity of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Stream Network Temperature Model. Pages 247-257 in Morel-Seytoux, ed., Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual American Geophysical Union Hydrology Days. Fort Collins, CO.
Bartholow, J.M., J.L. Laake, C.B. Stalnaker, and S.C. Williamson. 1993. A salmonid population model with emphasis on habitat limitations. Rivers, 4(4).
Barton, D.R., W.D. Taylor, and R.M. Biette. 1985. Dimensions of riparian buffer strips required to maintain trout habitat in southern Ontario streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 5, 364-378.
Beschta, R.L. 1991. Stream habitat management for fish in the northwestern United States: the role of riparian vegetation. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 10, 53-58.
Beschta, R.L. 1997. Riparian shade and stream temperature: An alternative perspective. Rangelands, 19(2), 25-28.
Beschta, R.L., R.E. Bilby, G.W. Brown, L.B. Holtby, and T.D. Hofstra. 1988. Stream temperature and aquatic habitat: Fishery and forestry interactions. Pages 191-232 In Streamside Management: Forestry and Fishery Interactions. Contribution No. 57. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Institute of Forest Resources. Seattle, WA. 471 pp.
Beschta, R.L., and R.L. Taylor. 1988. Stream temperature increases and land use in a forested Oregon watershed. Water Resources Bulletin, 24(1), 19-25.
Brosofske, K.D., J. Chen, R.J. Naiman, and J.F. Franklin. 1997. Harvesting effects on microclimatic gradients from small streams to uplands in western Washington. Ecological Applications, 7(4), 1188-1200.
Brown, G.W. 1970. Predicting the effect of clearcutting on stream temperature. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 25, 11-13.
Brown, G.W., and J.T. Krygier. 1970. Effects of clearcutting on stream temperatures. Water Resources Research, 6(4), 1133-1139.
Burton, T.A. 1997. Effects of basin-scale timber harvest on water yield and peak streamflow. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 33(6), 1187-1196.
Burton, T.M., and G.E. Likens. 1973. The effect of strip-cutting on stream temperatures in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. Bioscience, 23, 433-435.
Chen, J., J. F. Franklin, and T. A. Spies. 1993. Contrasting microclimates among clearcut, edge, and interior of old-growth Douglas-fir forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 63, 219-237.
Childs, S. W., and L. E. Flint. 1987. Effect of shadecards, shelterwoods, and clearcuts on temperature and moisture environments. Forest Ecology and Management, 18, 205-217.
Dose, J. J., and B.B. Roper. 1994. Long-term changes in low-flow channel widths within the South Umpqua watershed, Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin, 30(6), 993-1000.
Duncan, W.F.A., M.A. Brusven, and T.C. Bjornn. 1989. Energy-flow response models for evaluation of altered riparian vegetation in three southeast Alaskan streams. Water Resources, 23(8), 965-974.
Edgerton, P.J., and B.R. McConnell. 1976. Diurnal temperature regimes of logged and unlogged mixed conifer stands on elk summer range. Station Research Note PNW-277. Portland, OR. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 6 pp.
Feller, M.C. 1981. Effects of clearcutting and slashburning on stream temperature in southwestern British Columbia. Water Resources Bulletin, 17(5), 863-867.
Fowler, W.B., and T.D. Anderson. 1987. Illustrating harvest effects on site microclimate in a high-elevation forest stand. Research Note PNW-RN-466. Portland, OR. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 10 pp.
Fowler, W.B., J.D. Helvey, and E. N. Felix. 1987. Hydrologic and climatic changes in three small watersheds after timber harvest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-379. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 13 pp.
Halverson, H.G., and J.L. Smith. 1979. Solar radiation as a forest management tool: a primer and application of principles. Berkeley, CA.: U.S. Forest Service Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report PSW-33. 13 pp.
Hartman, G.F., L.B. Holtby, and J.C. Scrivener. 1984. Some effects of natural and logging-related winter stream temperature changes on the early life history of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Carnation Creek, British Columbia. In Fish and Wildlife Relationships in Old-growth Forests, W.R. Meehan, T.R Merrell Jr., and T.A. Hanky, eds. Proceedings of Alaska District, Am. Inst. of Fish. Res. Biologists, NW Section, The Wildlife Society. Alaska Council on Science and Technology, Juneau, Alaska, April 1982. 425 pp.
Harr, R.D., A. Levno, and R. Mersereua. 1982. Streamflow changes after logging 130-year-old Douglas fir in two small watersheds. Water Resources Research, 18(3), 637-644.
Heede, B. H. 1991. Response of a stream in disequilibrium to timber harvest. Environmental Management, 15(2), 251-255.
Hewlett, J.D., and J.C. Fortson. 1982. Stream temperature under an inadequate buffer strip in the southeast piedmont. Water Resources Bulletin, 18(6), 983-988.
Holbo, H. R., and S. W. Childs. 1987. Summertime radiation balances of clearcut and shelterwood slopes in southwest Oregon. Forest Science, 33(2), 504-516.
Holtby, L.B. 1988. Effects of logging on stream temperatures in Carnation Creek, British Columbia, and associated impacts on the coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 45, 502-515.
Johnson, S.L. and J.A. Jones. In press. Stream temperature responses to forest harvest and debris flows in western Cascaded, Oregon. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.
Jones, J.A. and G.E. Grant. 1996. Peak flow responses to clear-cutting and roads in small and large basins, western Cascades, Oregon. Water Resources Research, 32(4), 959-974.
Knapp, R.H. Jr., and R.L. Williamson. 1984. Crown shadow area equations. Forest Science, 30(2), 284-290.
Larson, L.L., and S.L. Larson. 1996. Riparian shade and stream temperature: A perspective. Rangelands, 18(4), 149-152.
Leopold, L.B., M.G. Wolman, and J.P. Miller. 1964. Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology. W.H. Freeman & Company, San Francisco. 522 pp.
Levno, A., and J. Rothacher. 1967. Increases in maximum stream temperatures after logging in old-growth Douglas-fir Watersheds. Research Note PNW-65 Portland, OR. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 12 pp.
Li, H.W., G.A. Lamberti, T.N. Pearsons, C.K. Tait, and others. 1994. Cumulative effects of riparian disturbances along high desert trout streams of the John Day basin, Oregon. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 123, 627-640.
Lifton, W.S., K.A. Voos, and D. Gilbert. 1985. The simulation of the Pit 3, 4, and 5 Hydroelectric Project using the USFWS instream temperature model. Pages 1805-1814 in Waterpower 1985, Volume 3. Proceedings of an International Conference on Hydropower, Las Vegas, Nevada, September 25-27 1985. American Society of Civil Engineers.
Lifton, W.S., K.A. Voos, and D. Gilbert. 1987. Simulation of variable release temperatures from the Rock Creek-Cresta project using the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service instream temperature model. Pages 610-619 in B.W. Clowes, editor, Waterpower 87 Int. Conf. on Hydropower, Portland, OR, August 19-21 1987. American Society of Civil Engineers.
Lynch, J.A., G.B. Rishel, and E.S. Corbett. Thermal alteration of streams draining clearcut watersheds: Quantification and biological implications. Hydrobiologia, 111, 161-169.
Martin, D.J., L.J. Wasserman, and V.H. Dale. 1986. Influence of riparian vegetation on posteruption survival of coho salmon fingerlings on the west-side streams of Mount St. Helens, Washington. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 6(1), 1-8.
Mattax, B.L. and T.M. Quigley. 1989. Validation and sensitivity analysis of the stream network temperature model on small watersheds in Northeast Oregon. Pages 391-400 in W.W. Woessner and D.F. Potts, eds. Proceedings of the Symposium on Headwaters Hydrology, Am. Wat. Res. Bethesda, MD 20814-2192.
Quigley, T.M. 1981. Estimating contribution of overstory vegetation to stream surface shade. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 9(1), 22-27.
Reid, R., and I.S. Ferguson. 1992. Development and validation of a simple approach to modelling tree shading in agroforestry systems. Agroforestry Systems, 20, 243-252.
Rishel, G.B., J.A. Lynch, and E.S. Corbett. 1982. Seasonal stream temperature changes following forest harvesting. Journal of Environmental Quality, 11(1), 112-116.
Ronan, A.D., D.E. Prudic, C.E. Thodal, and J. Constantz. 1998. Field study and simulation of diurnal temperature effects on infiltration and variably saturated flow beneath an ephemeral stream. Water Resources Research, 34(9), 2137-2153.
Rutherford, J.C., S. Blackett, C. Blackett, L. Saito, R.J. Davies-Colley. 1997. Predicting the effects of shade on water temperature in small streams. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 31, 707-721.
Schmid, J.M., S.A. Mata, and R.A. Schmidt. 1991. Bark temperature patterns in ponderosa pine stands and their possible effects on mountain pine beetle behavior. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research, 21, 1439-1446.
Stalnaker, C., B.L. Lamb, J. Henriksen, K. Bovee, and J. Bartholow. 1995. The Instream Flow Incremental Methodology. A primer for IFIM. National Biological Service Biological Science Report 95(29). 44 pp.
Stednick, J.D. 1996. Monitoring the effects of timber harvest on annual water yield. Journal of Hydrology, 176, 79-95.
Swift, L.W., and J.B. Messer. 1971. Forest cuttings raise temperatures of small streams in the southern Appalachians. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 26(3), 111-116.
Sullivan, K., J. Tooley, K. Doughty, J.E. Caldwell, and P. Knudsen. 1990. Evaluation of prediction models and characterization of stream temperature regimes in Washington. Timber/Fish/Wildlife Rep. No. TFW-WQ3-90-006. Washington Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, Washington. 224 pp.
Theurer, F.D. 1985. Heat transport equation for the instream water temperature model. Pages 372-377 in Proceedings of the Natural Resources Modeling Symposium. Agricultural Research Service ARS-30, April 1985.
Theurer, F.D., and K.A. Voos. 1982. IFG's instream water temperature model validation. Pages 513-518 in F. Kilpatrick and D. Matchett (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference on water and energy: Technical and policy issues. American Society of Civil Engineers. Proceedings of the Hydraulics Conference, Pittsburgh, Penn., and Fort Collins, Colorado, May 23-26 and June 23-27 1982.
Theurer, F.D., K.A. Voos, and C.G. Prewitt. 1982. Application of IFG's instream water temperature model in the Upper Colorado River. Pages 287-292 in A. Johnson and R. Clark, eds. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrometeorology. Denver, CO, June 13-17, 1982. American Water Resources Association.
Theurer, F.D., K.A. Voos, and W.J. Miller. 1984. Instream Water Temperature Model. Instream Flow Inf. Pap. No. 16. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-84/15. v.p.
Theurer, F.D., I. Lines, and T. Nelson. 1985. Interaction between riparian vegetation, water temperature, and salmonid habitat in the Tucannon River. Water Resources Bulletin, 21, 53-64.
Troendle, C.A., and R. M. King. 1985. The effect of timber harvest on the Fool Creek watershed, 30 years later. Water Resources Research, 21(12), 1915-1922.
Tucker, G. F., and W. H. Emmingham. 1977. Morphological changes in leaves of residual western hemlock after clear and shelterwood cutting. Forest Science, 23(2), 195-203.
Tu, S., W. Mills, and S. Liu. 1992. Temperature model evaluation and application. Habitat Evaluation Notes and Instream Flow Chronicle. Colorado State University Conference Services. January 1992. 2(1), 1-3.
U.S. Geological Survey. 2000. Website for Stream and Riparian Ecology software and training support. http://www.fort.usgs.gov/products/software/software.asp.
Voos, K.A., Lifton, W.S., and D.A. Gilbert. 1987. Simulation of the Stanislaus Project: Performance of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service instream temperature model on a complex system. Pages 746-755 in B.W. Clowes, editor. Waterpower 87: Proceedings of International Conference on Hydrology, Portland, OR. Aug. 19-21 1987. American Society of Civil Engineers.
Webb, B.W. and Y. Zhang. 1997. Spatial and seasonal variability in the components of the river heat budget. Hydrological Processes, 11, 79-101.
Young, K.A. 2000. Riparian zone management in the Pacific Northwest: Who's cutting what? Environmental Management, 26(2), 131-144.
Zedonis, P. 1994. Estimated influences of feather edge and side-channel projects on water temperatures of the upper Trinity River. Lewiston, CA.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 19 pp.
Zwieniecki, M.A., and M. Newton. 1999. Influence of streamside cover and stream features on temperature trends in forested streams of western Oregon. Western Journal of Applied Forestry, 14(2), 106-113.
Back to the SMIG Features Page
Home | Mailing List | Features | Conferences | Classes | Reading | Model Archives | Feedback